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Rahula

Rahula
The Buddha with Rhula and his mother Yasodhara.
Religion	Buddhism
Personal
Born	c. 534 BC Kapilavastu
Senior posting
Title	Thera
Religious career
Teacher	Gautama Buddha

Rhula (born c. 534 BC) was the only son of Siddhartha Gautama (Pli Siddhattha Gotama), later known as the Buddha, and his wife Princess Yasodhar.

Accounts of his life differ in certain points. The following is that given in the Pli Canon.

Life

Prince Siddhartha was preparing himself to leave the palace. One account^[1] claims that when he received the news of his son's birth he replied Rhu jto, bandhanam jtam " "A rhu is born, a fetter has arisen." Accordingly the child was named Rhula, meaning "fetter", or "impediment", recognizing that the child could be a tie that bound him to his wife Yashodhara, a binding that may impede a search for enlightenment.^[2] Others, however, feel rhu does not mean "fetter" in this sense.^[3] The second account, found in the Mlasarvstivda vinaya, is that Rhula received his name in accordance with an eclipse of the moon, caused by the snake Rahu.^[4] In Japanese he is called Ragora ().

Supporting the first account, in the Dhammapada, the pleasure and joy that a man receives in his wife and children is called a "soft fetter" that ties individuals to life and suffering, not just through eventual loss and separation of loved ones but more deeply and subtly may act as ties to cyclic existence (samsara).

Rhula was raised by his mother and grandfather, King Suddhodana. When he was seven years old, Rahula requested his father, missing him dearly; the Buddha returned to his home city of Kapilavatthu. On the seventh day of his return, Yasodhar took Rhula to see his father, the Buddha. She told Rhula that since his father had renounced the palace life and as he was the next royal prince in line, he should ask his father for his inheritance of crown and treasure for his future sake when his grandfather would no longer rule the kingdom.

After the meal, Rhula followed the Buddha, saying "Give me my inheritance." Nobody tried to stop him, nor did the Buddha prevent him from following him. He then looked at his father and said, "Lord, even your shadow is pleasing to me."

Reaching the Park of Nigrodha, where the Buddha was staying, the Buddha thought to himself: "He desires his father's inheritance, but it is wrought with troubles. I shall give him the benefit of my spiritual Enlightenment and make him an owner of a transcendental inheritance."

The Buddha called Venerable Sariputta and asked him to ordain little Rhula who became the first Smanera (novice monk).

"The King, discovering that now his grandson and a number of young men in the royal family had requested ordination, asked the Buddha only to ordain a minor with the consent of his parents or guardian. The Buddha assented. This rule was expanded to include the spouses of those intending to join the Order of monks and nuns.^[5]

Shortly after Rhula's ordination the Buddha taught him the importance of telling the truth. This discourse is known as the Rahulovada Sutta.^[6] The Buddha placed truth as the highest of all virtues. The seekers of Truth, (those who have as their goal Nibbana) should not break the precept of Truth.

Rhula subsequently became one among the many arhants through following the Buddha's teachings.

Rhula died before the Buddha, Sariputta and Moggallana.

Other accounts

In the Mlasarvstivda-vinaya, used by Tibetan Buddhists, it is claimed that Rhula was conceived on the evening of the Renunciation, and born six years later, on the day that his father achieved Enlightenment (which is also said to coincide with a lunar eclipse). Also see "Rahu," a Hindu Asura and Dharmapala.

Mahayana Sources: in the Lotus Sutra, Shakyamuni predicts that Rahula will become a buddha named "Treader on Seven-Jeweled Lotuses Tathagata". In the following verse section he says, "In worlds to come, seeing infinite kotis of buddhas, to all he will be eldest son and with all his mind seek the Buddha-way. Of the hidden course of Rahula only I am able to know" (Chapter IX).

Stupa

The Great Stupa at Sanchi, India, established by Ashoka (4th-1st century BCE).

A stupa (from Sanskrit: m., , stpa, Sinhalese: , Pli: "thpa", literally meaning "heap") is a mound-like or semi-hemispherical structure containing Buddhist relics, typically the ashes of Buddhist monks, used by Buddhists as a place of meditation.

Description and history

Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, northeastern India is the oldest Stupa in existence. Stupa surrounded by four lion-crowned pillars. Gandhara, 2nd century CE.

Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist earthen burial mounds, in which ascetics were buried in a seated position,^[1] called chaitya.^[2] After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. Little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments. However, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds.

The stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries becoming, for example, the chorten of Tibet^[3] and the pagoda in East Asia.^[4] The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between the stupa and the pagoda. In general, however, stupa is used for a Buddhist structure of India or south-east Asia, while pagoda refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be secular in purpose.

Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after King Devanampiyatissa converted to Buddhism, the first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later on Sri Lanka went on to build many stupas over the years, some like the Jetavanarama in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world.

Notable Stupas

Ghalegay hosts one of the biggest stupas at Mohallah Singardar in district Swat, Pakistan.^{[citation needed]}

A stupa was discovered at Sopara, an ancient port near Mumbai, and is believed to be one of the most ancient stupas in the world. The oldest known stupa is the Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath, India, while the tallest is the Phra Pathom Chedi in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres.^{[citation needed]}

The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, Indonesia. The upper rounded terrace with rows of bell shaped stupas contained buddha images symbolizing Arupadhatu, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is only the crown part of the monument, while the base is pyramidal structure elaborate with galleries adorned with bas relief of scenes derived from Buddhist text depicted the life of Siddharta Gautama. Borobudur unique and significant architecture has been acknowledge by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world.^{[citation needed]}

Types of stupas

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types:^[5]

• Relic stupa - in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples and lay saints are interred.
• Object stupa - in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.
• Commemorative stupas - built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.
• Symbolic stupa- to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobuddur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) in a Mahayana bodhisattva's character."^[5]
• Votive stupas - constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

Symbolism

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha, Zenymitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo Buddha relics from Kanishka's stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan. These surviving relics are now housed in Mandalay, Burma.

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."^[6]

Five purified elements

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements:^[7]

• The square base represents earth
• The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
• The conical spire represents fire
• The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air
• The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space

Construction

To build a stupa, transmissions and ceremonies from a Buddhist teacher is necessary.^[8] Which kind of Stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type of stupa chosen is directly connected with events that have taken place in the area.^[8]

Treasury

All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small offerings called Tsa-Tsas fill a major part of the treasury. Creation of various types of Tsa-Tsas is a ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls, and put into these small clay stupas.^[8] Filling the treasury, one layer of Tsa-Tsas are placed, and the empty space between is filled with dry sand. On the new surface appearing, another layer is made, until the entire space of a treasury is full.^[8]

The number of Tsa-Tsas are dependent on the size of both the treasury and Tsa-Tsa, since it should be completely filled. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain has approximately 14 000 Tsa-Tsas within.^[8]

Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary that the jewellery be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price.^[8] It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the Stupa will be.^[8]

Tree of Life

A very important element in every Stupa is the Tree of Life. It is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras, and placed in the central channel of the stupa.^[8] It is placed here during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged up, and will start to function.^[8]

Benefits

Top of the Grand Stupa

Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action will result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, and being attractive and bringing joy to others and having a long and happy life, in which one's wishes are fulfilled quickly.^[9] On the absolute level, one will also be able to reach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism, quickly.^[9]

Destroying a stupa on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to killing.^[10] Such an action is explained to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to massive future problems. It is said this action will leave the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths.^[10]

Tibetan stupas

The Eight Great Stupas

There are eight different kinds of stupas in Tibetan Buddhism, each referring to major events in the Buddha's life.^[7]

Lotus Blossom Stupa

Also known as Stupa of Heaped Lotuses or Birth of the Sugata Stupa, this stupa refers to the birth of the Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions"^[7] (East, South, West and North). In each direction lotuses sprang, symbolizing the Four Immeasurables: love, compassion, joy and equanimity. The four steps of the basis of this stupa is circular, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha.^[7]

Enlightenment Stupa

Also known as the Stupa of the Conquest of Mara. This stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under the bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks manifesting in the form of Mara.^[7]

Stupa of Many Doors

Also known as the Stupa of Many Gates. After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer-park near Sarnath. The series of doors on each side of the steps represent the first teachings: the Four Noble Truths, the Six Perfections, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Twelve Links in the Chain of Dependent Origination.^[7]

Stupa of Descent from the God Realm

At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in Tushita Heaven, where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness he taught the dharma to her reincarnation. Local inhabitants built a stupa like this in Sankasya in order to commemorate this event. This stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side containing a triple ladder or steps.^[7]

Stupa of Great Miracles

Also known as Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas. This stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered maras and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the Lichavi kingdom to commemorate the event.^[7]

Stupa of Reconciliation

This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the sangha. A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of Magadha, where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides.^[7]

Stupa of Complete Victory

This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned.^[7]

Stupa of Nirvana

This stupa refers to the death of the Buddha, when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes the Buddha's complete absorption into the highest state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually not ornamented.^[7]

Kalachakra stupa

A 9th kind of stupa exists; the Kalachakra stupa. Its symbolism is not connected to events in the Buddha's life, but instead to the symbolism of the Kalachakra Tantra, created to protect against negative energies.^[11]

Regional names

Regional names for stupa include:

• chaitya (Nepal)^[5]
• Dgaba (usually spelled "Dagoba") (Sinhalese: , from Sanskrit dhtu-garbha. (-) "relic-chamber" )^[5]
• Chedi (Thai: ", from the Pli cetiya ()^[5]
• Candi (Indonesia and Malaysia, pronounced 'chandi').^[5]
• Chorten [Tibet, Ladakh (India) and Bhutan] '" (Wylie: mchod rten), "basis of offering")^[5]
• Chedey (Cambodia)^[5]
• Phratht (Lanna)
• Havitta (Dhivehi: ) or ustubu (Maldives)
• Suburgan/Suvarga (Mongolia)
• (Russia)
• Tap (Korea ["/'], from Chinese)
• Thp (Vietnam [", from Chinese])
• Thart (Laos)
• Ta (Chinese: "; Mandarin Pinyin: t; Jyutping: taap³), ancient transliteration of Sanskrit stupa.
• Sotoba (Japan ['"/], T (Japan ["/], from Chinese)
• Zedi (Myanmar [Zedi ) /Pahto ('])
• Setaow (, /cet"e/)
• Tseti () or Puhto (')
• Chedi/Thoopam (Tamil
• Pagoda South East Asia^[5]
• Stupa (Hindi: , from Sanskrit)
• Garbha (Sanskrit: , meaning a storehouse or repository in this context)

Gallery

• 

  The Great Stupa at Sanchi, India,established by Ashoka the great (4th-1st century BCE).

• 

  Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, northeastern India is thought to be the oldest Stupa in existence.

• Swayambhunath, also known as Monkey Temple, is an ancient religious complex atop a hill in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.

• Boudhanath is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.

• 

  Ruwanwelisaya Chedi in the sacred city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

• Jetavanaramaya stupa in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka is the largest brick structure in the world^[12]

• 

  The main Stupa crowning Borobudur, the largest Buddhist structure in the world, Java, Indonesia.

• 

  A rock cut and semi brick construction ruins of Maha Chaitya(stupa) at Bojjannakonda, Andhra Pradesh, India

• 

  The Great Stupa at Shambhala Mountain Center, Colorado, USA

• 

  Khmer style stupa within the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

• Different architectural features that comprise Shwedagon Pagoda and similar Mon-style stupas, in Yangon, Myanmar.

• 

  Phra Sri Ratana Chedi within Wat Phra Kaeo, in Bangkok, Thailand.

• 

  White Dagoba Temple (Baita Si), also called Miaoying Si, in Beijing, China.

• 

  Stupa in Gotemba, Shizuoka City, Japan.

• Stupa at near Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet.

• 

  Stupa in Quaid-i-Azam University Campus in Islamabad, Pakistan.

• 

  Evolution of the Butkara stupa in Pakistan, through the Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Kushan periods.

• 

  A pagoda at Dambulla golden temple, Sri Lanka

This content was originally posted by: navyyata

dear people... Lord Gautam Buddha was born in Nepal not somewhere else..
donnn say somewhere else and keep identity of Lord Buddha in risk..

This content was originally posted by: RoseFairy

yes Lord Buddha was born in Nepal even Lumbini Park where sidhartha was born is heritage there

don't know why the show didn't mention Nepal's name

Buddhist councils

Lists and numbering of Buddhist councils vary between and even within schools. The numbering here is normal in Western writings.

First Buddhist council (c. 400 BCE)

According to the scriptures of all Buddhist schools, the first Buddhist Council was held soon after the mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, dated by the majority of recent scholars around 400 BCE, under the patronage of king Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Sattapanni caves Rajgriha (now Rajgir). Its objective was to preserve the Buddha's sayings (suttas) and the monastic discipline or rules (Vinaya). The Suttas were recited by Ananda, and the Vinaya was recited by Upali. According to some sources, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, or its matika, was also included. Also the Sangha made the unanimous decision to keep all the rules of the Vinaya, even the lesser and minor rules.

Second Buddhist council (c. 4th century BCE)

The historical records for the so-called "Second Buddhist Council" derive primarily from the canonical Vinayas of various schools (Theravda, Sarvstivda, Mlasarvstivda, Mahsanghika, Dharmaguptaka, and Mahsaka). In most cases, these accounts are found at the end of the Skandhaka portion of the Vinaya. While inevitably disagreeing on points of details, they nevertheless agree on roughly the following.

About 100 or 110 years after the Buddha's Nirvana, a monk called Yasa, when visiting Vesl, noticed a number of lax practices among the local monks. A list of "ten points" is given; the most important was that the Vesl monks, known as Vajjiputtakas, consented to accepting money. Considerable controversy erupted when Yasa refused to follow this practice. He was prosecuted by the Vajjiputtakas, and defended himself by quoting in public a number of canonical passages condemning the use of money by monastics. Wishing to settle the matter, he gathered support from monks of other regions, mainly to the west and south. A group consented to go to Vesli to settle the matter. After considerable maneuvering, a meeting was held, attended by 700 monks. A council of eight was appointed to consider the matter. This consisted of four locals and four 'westerners'; but some of the locals had already been secretly won over to the westerners' case^{[citation needed]}. Each of the ten points was referred to various canonical precedents. The committee found against the Vajjiputtaka monks. They presented this finding to the assembly, who consented unanimously. The canonical accounts end there.

Virtually all scholars agree that this second council was a historical event.^[1]

Third Buddhist council (c. 247 BCE)

In striking contrast to the uniform accounts of the Second Council, there are records of several possible "Third Councils". These different versions function to authorize the founding of one particular school or other.

According to the Theravda commentaries and chronicles, the Third Buddhist Council was convened by the Mauryan king Ashoka at Ptaliputra (today's Patna), under the leadership of the monk Moggaliputta Tissa. Its objective was to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage. The king asked the suspect monks what the Buddha taught, and they claimed he taught views such as eternalism, etc., which are condemned in the canonical Brahmajala Sutta. He asked the virtuous monks, and they replied that the Buddha was a "Teacher of Analysis" (Vibhajjavdin), an answer that was confirmed by Moggaliputta Tissa. The Council proceeded to recite the scriptures once more, adding to the canon Moggaliputta Tissa's own book, the Kathavatthu, a discussion of various dissenting Buddhist views now contained in the Theravda Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Also, emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West (in particular the neighboring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther according to the inscriptions left on stone pillars by Ashoka). According to Frauwallner (Frauwallner, 1956), several of these missionaries were responsible for founding schools in various parts of India: Majjhantika was the father of the Kasmiri Sarvastivdins; Yonaka Dhammarakkhita may have been the founder of the Dharmaguptaka school; Mahdeva, sent to the Mahisa country may have been the founder of the Mahisasakas; and several teachers travelled to the Himalayas where they founded the Haimavata school, including a certain Kassapagotta, who may be connected with the Kasyapiyas. Relics of some of the Haimavata monks have been excavated at Vedisa in central India.^[2] The most famous of the missionaries, and the main focus of interest for these Theravada histories, is Mahinda, who travelled to Sri Lanka where he founded the school we now know as Theravada.

The Theravda's own Dipavamsa records a quite different Council called the "Great Recital" (Mahsangiti), which it claims was held by the reformed Vajjiputtakas following their defeat at the Second council. The Dipavamsa criticizes the Mahasangitikas (who are the same as the Mahasanghikas) for rejecting various texts as non-canonical: the [Vinaya] Parivra; the 6 books of the Abhidhamma; the Patisambhida; the Niddesa; part of the Jatakas; and some verses. (Dipavamsa 76, 82)

The Mahsanghika, for their part, remember things differently: they allege, in the Sriputraparipriccha that there was an attempt to unduly expand the old Vinaya. The Mahasanghikas' own vinaya gives essentially the same account of the Second Council as the others, i.e. they were on the same side.

An entirely different account of Mahsanghika origins is found in the works of the Sarvstivda group of schools. Vasumitra tells of a dispute in Ptaliputra at the time of Ashoka over five heretical points: that an Arahant can have nocturnal emission; that he can have doubts; that he can be taught by another; that he can lack knowledge; and that the path can be aroused by crying "What suffering!". These same points are discussed and condemned in Moggaliputta Tissa's Kathavatthu, but there is no mention of this Council in Theravadin sources. The later Mahavibhasa develops this story into a lurid smear campaign against the Mahasanghika founder, who it identifies as "Mahadeva". This version of events emphasizes the purity of the Kasmiri Sarvastivadins, who are portrayed as descended from the arahants who fled persecution due to Mahadeva.

The Fourth Buddhist Councils

By the time of the Fourth Buddhist councils, Buddhism had long since splintered into different schools. The Theravada had a Fourth Buddhist Council in the first century BCE in Tambapanni, i.e. Sri Lanka, at Aloka Lena now Alu Vihara during the time of King Vattagamani-Abaya. However it should be clarified that an anonymous local chieftain had given patronage and not the king, since he was a firm follower of the Abayagir school (a Mahayana Sect.). In fact one of the main reasons for the Council was the cruel policy the king held against the Mahavihara Priests who were Theravadians who were once attacked at the Mahavihara Premises killing many and driving away the others. The temple was destroyed and in its place a Mahayana Temple was built. The other main reasons for the Council were the unstable political situation within the country due to constant invasions which lead the king himself to flee several times and also severe famine. It is said to have been devoted to committing the entire Pali Canon to writing, which had previously been preserved by memory. No mention had been made as to who led this Council, for which the approximate cause would have been the deteriorating status of Buddhism then, and the collective effort by the priesthood to preserve the religion in its purest form therefore not needing a leader(only the fact that the Mahavihara priesthood i.e. Theravada school took part in this recital and compilation had been mentioned).

Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held in the Sarvastivada tradition, said to have been convened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, in 78 AD at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. It is said that Kanishka gathered five hundred Bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra, to systematize the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts, which were translated form earlier Prakrit vernacular languages (such as Gandhari in Kharosthi script) into the classical language of Sanskrit. It is said that during the council three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements were compiled, a process which took twelve years to complete. Although the Sarvastivada are no longer extant as an independent school, its traditions were inherited by the Mahayana tradition. The late Monseigneur Professor Etienne Lamotte, an eminent Buddhologist, held that Kanishka's Council was fictitious.^[3] However, David Snellgrove, another eminent Buddhologist, considers the Theravada account of the Third Council and the Sarvastivada account of the Fourth Council "equally tendentious," illustrating the uncertain veracity of much of these histories.^[4]

Theravada Buddhist council in 1871 (Fifth Buddhist council)

Another Buddhist Council, this time presided by Theravada monks took place in Mandalay, Burma, in 1871 in the reign of King Mindon. The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted or dropped. It was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable Mahathera Jagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable Mahathera Sumangalasami in the company of some two thousand four hundred monks (2,400). Their joint Dhamma recitation lasted for five months. It was also the work of this council to approve the entire Tripitaka inscribed for posterity on seven hundred and twenty-nine marble slabs in the Burmese script before its recitation.^[5] This monumental task was done by the monks and many skilled craftsmen who upon completion of each slab had them housed in beautiful miniature 'pitaka' pagodas on a special site in the grounds of King Mindon's Kuthodaw Pagoda at the foot of Mandalay Hill where it and the so called 'largest book in the world', stands to this day. This Council is not generally recognized outside Burma.^[6]

Theravada Buddhist council in 1954 (Sixth Buddhist Council)

The Sixth Council was called at Kaba Aye in Yangon (formerly Rangoon) in 1954, 83 years after the fifth one was held in Mandalay. It was sponsored by the Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, the Honourable U Nu. He authorized the construction of the Maha Passana Guha, the "great cave", an artificial cave very much like India's Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held. Upon its completion The Council met on 17 May 1954.

As in the case of the preceding councils, its first objective was to affirm and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. However it was unique insofar as the monks who took part in it came from eight countries. These two thousand five hundred learned Theravada monks came from Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, India, and Nepal. Germany can only be counted as the nationality of the only two western monks in attendance: Venerable Nyanatiloka Mahathera and Venerable Nyanaponika Thera. They both were invited from Sri Lanka. The late Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw was appointed the noble task of asking the required questions about the Dhamma of the Venerable Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa who answered all of them learnedly and satisfactorily. By the time this council met all the participating countries had had the Pali Tripiaka rendered into their native scripts, with the exception of India.^[7]

The traditional recitation of the Buddhist Scriptures took two years and the Tripiaka and its allied literature in all the scripts were painstakingly examined and their differences noted down and the necessary corrections made and all the versions were then collated. It was found that there was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Finally, after the Council had officially approved them, all of the books of the Tipitaka and their commentaries were prepared for printing on modern presses and published in the Burmese script. This notable achievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the two thousand five hundred monks and numerous lay people. Their work came to an end on the evening of Vesak, 24 May 1956, exactly two and a half millennia after Buddha's Parinibbana, according to the traditional Theravada dating.

First Buddhist council

Early Buddhism

Scriptures

Gandhran texts gamas Pali Canon

Councils

1st Council 2nd Council 3rd Council 4th Council

Schools

First Sangha "" Mahsghika " Ekavyvahrika " Lokottaravda " Bahurutya " Prajaptivda "" Caitika "" Sthaviravda " Mahsaka " Dharmaguptaka " Kyapya " Sarvstivda "" Vibhajyavda "" Theravda

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The First Buddhist council was convened in the year following the Buddha's Parinibbana,^[1] which is 543-542 BCE according to Theravada tradition, at various earlier dates according to certain Mahayana traditions, and various later dates according to certain Western estimates.^[2] According to late commentarial accounts, King Ajatashatru (Sanskrit ) sponsored the council. Tradition holds that the Council was held in a hall erected by Ajatasattu outside the Sattaparnaguha (Pali: Sattapanniguha)or Saptaparni Cave in Rajgir, three months after the Buddha had attained "Parinibbhana" (i.e. died). Detailed accounts of the council can be found in the Khandhaka sections of the canonical Vinayas.

According to this record the incident which prompted the Elder Mahakassapa to call this meeting was his hearing a disparaging remark about the strict rule of life for monks. The monk Subhadda, who had ordained late in life, upon hearing that the Buddha had expired, voiced his resentment at having to abide by all the rules for monks laid down by the Buddha. Many monks lamented the passing of the Buddha and were deeply grieved but Subhadda spoke up to show happiness and relief that Buddha was gone.

And Subhadda, the late-received one, said to the Bhikkhus: "Enough, Sirs! Weep not, neither lament! We are well rid of the great Samana. We used to be annoyed by being told, 'This beseems you, this beseems you not.' But now we shall be able to do whatever we like; and what we do not like, that we shall not have to do."^[3]

Mahakassapa was alarmed by his remark and feared that the Dhamma and the Vinaya might be corrupted and not survive intact if other monks were to behave like Subhadda and interpret the Dhamma and the Vinaya rules as they pleased. To avoid this he decided that the Dhamma must be preserved and protected. To this end after gaining the Sangha's approval he called to council five hundred Arahants.^[3] Ananda was to be included in this provided he attained Arahanthood by the time the council convened.^[4]

With the Elder Mahakassapa presiding, the five hundred Arahant monks met in council during the rainy season. The first thing Mahakassapa did was to question the foremost expert on the Vinaya of the day, Venerable Upali on particulars of the monastic rule. This monk was well qualified for the task as the Buddha had taught him the whole of the Vinaya himself. The Elder Mahakassapa asked him specifically about the ruling on the first offense parajika, with regard to the subject, the occasion, the individual introduced, the proclamation, the repetition of the proclamation, the offense and the case of non-offense. Upali gave knowledgeable and adequate answers and his remarks met with the unanimous approval of the presiding Sangha. Thus, the Vinaya was formally approved.

The Elder Mahakassapa then turned his attention to Ananda in virtue of his reputable expertise in all matters connected with the Dhamma. Happily, the night before the Council was to meet, Ananda had attained Arahantship and joined the Council.^[4][1] The Elder Mahakassapa, therefore, was able to question him at length with complete confidence about the Dhamma with specific reference to the Buddha's sermons. This interrogation on the Dhamma sought to verify the place where all the discourses were first preached and the person to whom they had been addressed.

Ananda aided by his word-perfect memory was able to answer accurately and so the Discourses met with the unanimous approval of the Sangha. The First Council also gave its official seal of approval for the closure of the chapter on the minor and lesser rules, and approval for their observance. It took the monks seven months to recite the whole of the Vinaya and the Dhamma and those monks sufficiently endowed with good memories retained all that had been recited. This historic first council came to be known as the Pancasatika because five hundred fully enlightened Arahants had taken part in it.

Second Buddhist council

Early Buddhism

Scriptures

Gandhran texts gamas Pali Canon

Councils

1st Council 2nd Council 3rd Council 4th Council

Schools

First Sangha "" Mahsghika " Ekavyvahrika " Lokottaravda " Bahurutya " Prajaptivda "" Caitika "" Sthaviravda " Mahsaka " Dharmaguptaka " Kyapya " Sarvstivda "" Vibhajyavda "" Theravda

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The Second Buddhist council took place approximately one hundred years after the Buddha's parinirva. Virtually all scholars agree that the second council was a historical event.^[1] Traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous, but it is agreed that the overall result was the first schism in the Sagha, between the Sthaviras and the Mahsghikas, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was.^[2]

Modern scholarship

Mahdeva legend

According to the Theravadin account, the Second Council occurred in Vail. Its purpose was to adjudicate on ten points which amounted to minor infringements of the Vinaya, such as handling money and eating after midday.^[3] The council was convened, and an elder rendered a verdict condemning the ten points, after which the council was closed.^[4] According to this account, some 35 years later at Paliputra, there was another meeting over five points held by a figure named Mahdeva.^[5] These five points were essentially regarding doctrines of the fallibility and imperfection of arhats, which were opposed by some.^[6] In this account, the majority (Mahsagha) sided with Mahdeva, and the minority (Sthaviras) were opposed to it, thus causing a split in the Sagha.^[7] However, the Samayabhedoparacanacakra records that Mahdeva was a completely different figure who was the founder of the Caitika sect over 200 years later.^[8][9] Some scholars have concluded that an association of "Mahdeva" with the first schism was a later sectarian interpolation.^[10] Jan Nattier and Charles Prebish write:^[11]

Mahdeva has nothing to do with the primary schism between the Mahsghikas and Sthaviras, emerging in a historical period considerably later than previously supposed, and taking his place in the sectarian movement by instigating an internal schism within the already existing Mahsghika school.

Addition of Vinaya rules

Under the influence of materials from the Theravda school, some modern historians have tended to see the Mahsghikas as a lax, breakaway group. However, the account by the Mahsghika school itself saw the Sthaviras as being the breakaway group which was attempting to modify the original Vinaya.^[12] Skilton has suggested that the problems of contradictory accounts are solved by the Mahsghika riputraparipcch, which is the earliest surviving account of the schism.^[13] In this account, the council was convened at Paliputra over matters of vinaya, and it is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahsagha) refusing to accept the addition of rules to the Vinaya by the minority (Sthaviras).^[14] Regarding this matter, L.S. Cousins writes, "The Mahsghikas were essentially a conservative party resisting a reformist attempt to tighten discipline. The likelihood is that they were initially a larger body, representing the mass of the community, the mahsaga."^[15]

The riputraparipcch contains an account in which an old monk rearranges and augments the traditional Vinaya, consequently causing dissention among the monks that required the king's arbitration and eventually precipitating the first schism.^[16] As stated in the riputraparipcch:

He copied and rearranged our Vinaya, developing and augmenting what Kyapa had codified and which was called "Vinaya of the Great Assembly" (Mahsghavinaya). [...] The king considered that [the doctrines of the two parties represented] were both the work of the Buddha, and since their preferences were not the same, [the monks of the two camps] should not live together. As those who studied the old Vinaya were in the majority, they were called the Mahsghika; those who studied the new [Vinaya] were in the minority, but they were all Sthaviras; thus they were named Sthavira.

Scholars have generally agreed that the matter of dispute was indeed a matter of vinaya, and have noted that the account of the Mahsghikas is bolstered by the vinaya texts themselves, as vinayas associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahsghika Vinaya.^[17] For example, the Mahsghika Prtimoka has 67 rules in the aika-dharma section, while the Theravda version has 75 rules.^[18]

Vinaya antiquity

Modern scholarship is generally in agreement that the Mahsghika Vinaya is the oldest.^[19][20] This agrees well with the views of the Chinese monk Faxian, who travelled to India in order to procure the Mahsghika Vinaya, which was regarded as the original.^[21] According to Andrew Skilton, future scholars may determine that a study of the Mahsghika school will contribute to a better understanding of the early Dharma-Vinaya than the Theravda school.^[22]

Third Buddhist council

Early Buddhism

Scriptures

Gandhran texts gamas Pali Canon

Councils

1st Council 2nd Council 3rd Council 4th Council

Schools

First Sangha "" Mahsghika " Ekavyvahrika " Lokottaravda " Bahurutya " Prajaptivda "" Caitika "" Sthaviravda " Mahsaka " Dharmaguptaka " Kyapya " Sarvstivda "" Vibhajyavda "" Theravda

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The Third Buddhist council was convened in about 250 BCE at Asokarama in Pataliputra, supposedly under the patronage of Emperor Asoka, a grave question mark hangs over this though as Asoka never mentioned it in his edicts, which one might have expected if he had called the council.

The traditional reason for convening the Third Buddhist Council is reported to have been to rid the Sangha of corruption and bogus monks who held heretical views. It was presided over by the Elder Moggaliputta Tissa and one thousand monks participated in the Council. The council is recognized and known to both the Theravada and Mahayana schools, though its importance is central only to the Theravada school.^[1] Tradition has it that Asoka had won his throne through shedding the blood of all his father's sons except his own brother, Tissa Kumara, who eventually got ordained and achieved Arahantship.

Historical background

The account of the background to the Third Council is as follows: Emperor Asoka was crowned in the two hundred and eighteenth year after the Buddha's Mahaparinibbna. At first he paid only token homage to the Dhamma and the Sangha and also supported members of other religious sects as his father had done before him. However, all this changed when he met the pious novice-monk Nigrodha who preached him the Appamada-vagga. Thereafter he ceased supporting other religious groups and his interest in and devotion to the Dhamma deepened. He used his enormous wealth to build, it is said, eighty-four thousand pagodas and viharas and to lavishly support the bhikkhus with the four requisites. His son Mahinda and his daughter Sanghamitta were ordained and admitted to the Sangha.

Eventually, his generosity was to cause serious problems within the Sangha. In time the order was infiltrated by many unworthy men, holding heretical views and who were attracted to the order because of the Emperor's generous support and costly offerings of food, clothing, shelter and medicine. Large numbers of faithless, greedy men espousing wrong views tried to join the order but were deemed unfit for ordination.

Despite this they seized the chance to exploit the Emperor's generosity for their own ends and donned robes and joined the order without having been ordained properly. Consequently, respect for the Sangha diminished. When this came to light some of the genuine monks refused to hold the prescribed purification or Uposatha ceremony in the company of the corrupt, heretical monks.

When the Emperor heard about this he sought to rectify the situation and dispatched one of his ministers to the monks with the command that they perform the ceremony. However, the Emperor had given the minister no specific orders as to what means were to be used to carry out his command. The monks refused to obey and hold the ceremony in the company of their false and 'thieving' companions (Pali, theyya-sinivsaka).

In desperation the angry minister advanced down the line of seated monks and drawing his sword, beheaded all of them one after the other until he came to the King's brother, Tissa who had been ordained. The horrified minister stopped the slaughter and fled the hall and reported back to the Emperor. Asoka was deeply grieved and upset by what had happened and blamed himself for the killings. He sought Thera Moggaliputta Tissa's counsel. He proposed that the heretical monks be expelled from the order and a third Council be convened immediately.

Council

So it was that in the seventeenth year of the Emperor's reign the Third Council was called. Thera Moggaliputta Tissa headed the proceedings and chose one thousand monks from the sixty thousand participants for the traditional recitation of the Dhamma and the Vinaya, which went on for nine months. The Emperor, himself questioned monks from a number of monasteries about the teachings of the Buddha. Those who held wrong views were exposed and expelled from the Sangha immediately. In this way the Bhikkhu Sangha was purged of heretics and bogus bhikkhus.

According to the Pali and Chinese accounts, the Elder Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to refute a number of heresies and ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, compiled a book during the council called the Kathavatthu. This book consists of twenty-three chapters, and is a collection of discussions on the points of controversy. It gives refutations of the 'heretical' views held by various Buddhist sects on matters philosophical. The Kathavatthu is the fifth of the seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. However, the historicity of this has been questioned, as the account preserved in the San Jian Lu Pi Po Sho (Sudassanavinayavibhasha), although otherwise almost identical, does not mention the Kathavatthu.

Moggaliputtatissa told Ashoka that the doctrine taught by the Buddha was the Vibhajjavada, the Doctrine of Analysis. This term is used in various senses, and it is not clear exactly what it meant in this context. Traditionally, however, the Sri Lankan Theravadins and other mainland schools of Early Buddhism identified themselves as Vibhajjavada.

Emissaries

see also Greco-Buddhist monasticism

One of the most significant achievements ascribed by Theravada tradition to this Dhamma assembly and one which was to bear fruit for centuries to come, was the Emperor's sending forth of monks, well versed in the Buddha's Dhamma and Vinaya who could recite all of it by heart, to teach it in nine different countries.

Results of missions

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The Dhamma missions to Sri Lanka and Kashmir and Gandhara were very successful, leading to a long-term presence and dominance of Buddhism in those areas.

It is not clear exactly how influential the interactions to Egypt and Greece may have been, but some authors have commented that some level of syncretism between Hellenist thought and Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at that time. They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possibly a deformation of the Pali word "Theravada"), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism" (Robert Linssen).

Possibly Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with what may be depictions of the Dharma wheel (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some scholars have even pointed out that "It was later in this very place that some of the most active centers of Christianity were established" (Robert Linssen "Zen living").

In the 2nd century CE, the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria recognized Bactrian Buddhists (Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence on Greek thought:

"Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas among the Bactrians (" '"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sramanas (""), and others Brahmins ("'")." Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I, Chapter XV ^[2]